Iran-Contra affair Essay Example for Free

Iran-Contra affair EssayThe linked States became a child of the enlightenment with the birth of its diplomacy in the moderne realness with an exceptionalist self perception. Its diplomacy was reinforced with a moral force owing to its messianic tendencies during its initial visions. The goals of the nation were unambiguously articulated in the too soon works of the States and the Republic. These writings formed the foundation of joined States identity, making it stands out among the other nations of the world.By the principles upon which the nation was founded, high levels of integrity were to be observed among its citizens and officials. As such, transparency and accountability were meant to be the guiding principles of all public office holders. The role of the leaders was to act in the interest of the subjects and the interest of the nation. According to Ryan, the positive to democratic theory is the idea that the legitimacy of a governing is founded on the consent of t he governed. Practically, this was not extended to all the governed, but to the citizens, to those who had stakes in society. regular then, issues concerning policy essential be agreed upon by the citizens through their representatives. The strength of the basic principles upon which the joined States were founded has been tested ever since the birth of the nation. There have been meaningful constructions that have remained potent forces throughout the United States policy making in the twentieth century. The development of collective memories and ideological assumptions that form the reference points in United States diplomacy is among these forces.Again, the basis of a sphere of influence approach to policy making and the way in which the various universal ambitions are influenced by operable necessity or the incapability to further the sphere unchallenged also remained a potent force in United States policy making. It accordingly comes as a surprise that the very principles t hat form the basis of the American strength are blatantly abused by the very individuals and officials meant to protect them. The Iran-Contra Affair is an character of this gross violation of the American principles.Background The relationship between the United States and Iran has not been good since the 1979 Iranian Revolution. As such, the relations have been anything but poor. It in that respectfore comes as a surprise if claims begin to circulate to the effect that the two countries are having some form of arms deal. A Lebanese weekly, on November 3, 1986, account that the United States had do a secret arms trade to Iran. Reports that followed suggested that the aim of the sales was to secure the put out of American citizens that had been interpreted captive in Lebanon.The reports were problematic to believe as the Reagan garbage disposals policy on arms sale especially to the Government of Khomeini of Iran was only rivaled by a few on strictness. Initially, the United States political relation denied the reports. However, the truth of the claims was revealed later in the month just as had been aroused by the weekly. The United States had indeed sold weapons to Iran so as to secure the release of American hostages in Lebanon. As much as the weapons were sold to Iran, the number of American hostages in Lebanon remained the same.Three hostages were released and three more were taken captive during the consummation of the sales. The fact of the sale was proved even further when the Attorney General announced on November 25 that the proceeds from the Iran arms sale will be channeled to the Nicaraguan resistance. This happed at a judgment of conviction when the United States military aid to the Contras was prohibited. Iran and Nicaragua were thus brought unneurotic in a credibility crisis that posed serious questions intimately the adherence of Reagans judicial system to the constitutional process of the government.During the 1980s, Iran and Ni caragua had posed serious challenges to the United States foreign policy. The propriety and legality of the bodily processs taken by the staff of the National security system Council and other government officers with regard to the sale of the arms and the secret assistance to the Contras raised deep concerns among the members of the Public and copulation. The United States assistance to the Contras was not a novel issue as the Congress and the President had engaged in serious debate concerning the proper course of United States policy with Congress resolving to hindrance body forth of Contra military operation for almost two years.Senior government officials had also reiterated the administrations willingness to abide by the law. The United States foreign policy and the democratic figure of law came to be faced by such serious implications by the Iran-Contra Affair that the 100th Congress rooted to undertake its own investigation of the Affair. profligate The Iran-Contra A ffair can be traced in two unrelated revolutions in Iran and Nicaragua. In 1979, the government of General Debayle in Nicaragua was overthrown and replaced by a government controlled by Sandinista leftists.During the same year in Iran, the pro-Western government of Pahlavi was overthrown by Islamic fundamentalists let by Ayatollah Khomeini. The Khomeini government allegedly became a supporter of terrorism against the citizens of United States. succeeding(a) the revolution in Nicaragua, the United States policy towards the Sandinista government was such as to encourage it to keep its pledges of pluralism and democracy. However, this government became increasingly autocratic and anti-American.Nicaraguan government begun aiding a leftist insurgency in El Salvador, turned toward the communist countries of Cuba and Soviet Union for political, military and economic assistance. The United States, by December 1981, had started to support the Nicaraguan Contras. The CIA was the United state s government agency that assisted the Contras, arming, feeding and clothing them in accordance with chairial decisions and funds appropriated by Congress. However, the contras failed to win widespread support or military victories despite this support.As much as the United States president continued to favor support of Contras, the majority of the public were opposed to it. Those who did not support Contras feared that the involvement of the United States with the Contras might lead it to a similar situation experienced in Vietnam. Its supporters on the other hand feared that the Soviets would have a risky hold in Central America without United states involvement. In 1983, Congress prohibited aid to contra for the purpose of overthrowing the Sandinista government.In 1984, it further limited aid to the Contras. The Congress later cut off all funds to the Contras following a disclosure that the CIA was involved in mining of the Nicaragua harbor without notifying Congress. The presid ent however allay felt strongly for the Contras and was therefore focused on keeping them alive . With this regard, he ordered his staff to device a way of keeping the Contras together which led to the NSC becoming operational entity that saw the secret running of the contra assistance effort, and later the Iran initiative.Having been denied funding from by the Congress, the president turned to private sources and third world countries. The president, together with the NSC secretly raised money from other countries to support the Contras. The Flaws Iran-Contra has two illusions at its heart. The first was that Iran would be easy to handle and the second was that the Nicaraguan contras would unless the United States from Communism. Both the illusions were destroyed in ways that showed how fragile the policies were and this occurred within a month of each other.At the beginning of the October 1986, a supply aircraft carrying weapons to the contras was picnic down by the Sandinistas . On November 3, a Lebanese weekly magazine carried the story of United States dealings with Iran. With this revelation, it did not appear ordinary that the United States government was involved in either operation. However, the truth of the matter was that the United States was directly involved in both the events. It cannot be denied that the common characteristic of the Iran and Contra policies were deception, secrecy and contempt of the law.There existed a small clique of senior officials who believed that they were the only individuals who knew what was right. They conceived knowledge of their actions by other individuals in the government as a threat to their objectives. The American people, the Congress and the Secretary of State were not enlightened on the actions of these people. The official documents were destroyed when there was a threat to expose their plans. Cabinet officials, elected representatives in congress and the public were told lies. Key facts were also hidde n to the president.The United States constitution is particular on the process by which laws and policy are to be made and executed. The essence of the American democracy is the constitutional process, which is also the foundation of its strength. Experience and common sense have shown that flawed process leads to bad results. The departure of Reagans administration from democratic process established the conditions for policy failure which resulted in contradictions that undermined United States credibility. United States went after two contradictory foreign policies simultaneously, a public and a secret one.The public policy was opposed to making any concessions for the release of hostages for fear of such concessions encouraging more hostage taking. At the same time, the United states was secretly trading weapons to secure the release of the hostages. The public policy was meant to ban the shipment of arms to Iran and to exhort other governments to observe this embargo. At the sa me time, the United States was secretly selling sophisticated missiles to Iran. The public policy was also meant to improve relations with Iraq. The United States was on the other hand shared intelligence on Iraq with Iran secretly.The public policy was also to encourage all governments to punish terrorism and to support the refusal of Kuwait to set free the Dawa prisoners convicted of terrorist acts. Senior officials at the same time secretly endorsed a Second-Hakim plan to allow Iran to secure the release of the prisoners. The letter and spirit of the Boland Amendment that barred military and paramilitary assistance to the contras was to be observed by the public policy. The NSC staff was secretly directed and funded the military efforts of contra.The administration was also meant to consult with the Congressional oversight committee with regard to covert activities in a a new spirit of frankness and cooperation . The CIA and the White House were on the other hand secretly withhel d all information about the Iran initiative and contra support network from the committees. Covert operations were to be conducted mainly through the CIA or other organs of the intelligence community authorized by the president. However, even though the NSC was not authorized, its staff secretly became operational and employed private, non-accountable agents to account in covert activities.All these contradictions in policy resulted in policy failure. Iran was armed by the United States, together with its most radical elements. However, the United States neither attained a new relationship with Iran nor reduced the number of American hostages in Lebanon. The sale of the arms did not result in the moderation of Iranian policies. Iran up to the present moment still sponsors actions that are directed against the United States in the Persian Gulf. The United states made itself vulnerable to blackmail by adversaries who were likely to reveal the secret arms sale.The credibility of the U nited States with allies and friends was undermined by its position of argue arms sale to Iran while doing the same herself in secret. An illicit funding was sought by the United States for the contras through profits from secret arms sale with the considerable amount ending up in the personal bank accounts of the private individuals who executed the sales. The Iran-Contra Affair also indicates a serious flaw in policymaking process. The highest level of the United States government was marked by confusion and disarray.Under total misapprehension, McFarlane set on a dangerous trip to Tehran . He assumed that the Iranians had promised to secure the release of the American hostages before the delivery of arms while on the contrary, they had only promised to seek the release of the hostages after the arms had arrived. Initially, the president told the Tower Board that he had approved the first Israeli shipments. He then denied then finally said that he did not know whether he had appr oved the arms shipment as his top advisors were not in agreement on the issue.He also claimed that he did not recall sign language a Finding approving the shipment to Iran. However, Poindexters testimony was on the contrary. The American public was incorrectly assured by the president that the NSC staff was adhering to the law and that there was no connection between the government of the United States and the Hasenfus airplane. His staff was on the other hand conducting a covert operation to support the Contras. Another contact feature of the Iran-Contra Affair was that it was marked by pervasive dishonesty and excessive secrecy.The Congress and the American people were constantly and repeatedly told lies about the contra covert action and Iran arms sales. North admitted to altering and destroying official documents. Conclusion Any public official must work on behalf of the state and thus, any action must be directed towards furthering the ideals of the state. As such, the public must be informed of the whatever is going on. Democracy dictates that the representatives of the people must be involved in the decision making process. The nations foreign policy makers act on behalf of the state.Even then, the citizens must be made known the implications and goals of certain actions that are being taken by the state. The Iran-Contra affair, in the contrary, operated against this principle. The affair would have fallen under the broad foreign policy, which was however not the case as it was carried out in secret. As much as policy makers have an interest in maintaining and advancing their domestic political positions, they must also seek to advance the interest of the state internationally. However, the Reagan administration locked policy makers out of the affair which may have led to its failure.The fact is that the administration well knew the consequences of their action and went ahead to carry it out secretly. The administration knew it would lose favor among t he citizens if they went ahead and carried out the operations even after Congress was opposed to it. Given the desire for political survival, the administration pretended to be concerned with the domestic impact of the various options that it had. Behind the scenes, it went ahead with its initial plans with no regard for the congress and the public. This in itself was a mockery of democracy.

Promoting Change Essay Example for Free

Promoting Change EssayAs a way of improving the level of users exponentiation and making the process an effective one, it becomes needed that consultative mechanisms that tend to produce feedbacks to users, and the ability to integrate them in every stage of military service delivery is put in place. Through their interaction with nurses and the breast feeding body, users would get to be in gradationed on ways to participate in other to help nurses to deliver effective services. Users need to get feedbacks on their affaire, only if this does not always happen. This can give way a bad effect on how people feel about being mired in involvement and the difference they can make (Carr, 2004). Social indemnity- making have characteristically tended to employ consultative mechanisms to seek greater citizen involvement in generating information for policy formulation. According to Gaventa (1993), the renewed focus on agency in the politics of policy- making offers the scope for recasting the role of citizens in the policy process.Rather than but the passive recipients of decision do by those who argon presumed to know better, participatory approaches redefine expertise in terms that both reveal the realities of power involved and assert the legitimacy of knowledge claims by those on the receiving end of policies. The imbalances of power position between the professionals and administrators of service and the users have been observed to be a groundwork for the relegation of users interest to the background.Thus, for an effective mechanism, it then requires that the gap between users and the provider of service be closed down. This can be done when some of these users, who be fit enough, can be trained to become occupiers of the administrative positions for service delivery. Also decent dissemination of information and enlightenment would go a ache way in positioning the users and making them know their rights and thus, preventing intimidation and any form of coercion.The importance of proper consultation and feedbacks in users involvement would make the users having a sense of satisfaction and the belief that they are actually being involved in the service delivery process. This will create a sense of belong and even encourage more participation and reduce the level of relegation and disregards of users voice in the policy emergence and decision-making during service policy formulation and implementation.In Wales, the Joint Review Team argues that new mechanisms are now in place to champion the cause of the users. The emphasis is on a culture of involvement through adequate feedbacks to users enhancing users involvement in service delivery. According to Cornwall Gaventa (1999), one form of greater accountability is through increased dialogue and consultation of bone marrow users and their involvement. This raises questions about the extent to which marginalized groups are able to articulate their concerns and about the form t hat dialogue takesProper conflict resolution that manages conflicts during users involvement is necessary in livery about the effective service delivery and users involvement at the long run. most articulate service users are branded as unrepresentative therefrom be in risk of being ignored. Service users who articulate the need for changes that agencies may not be willing or able to implement have sometimes being labelled as unrepresentativeimplementing changes that require reallocation of resources becoming more difficult especially if these conflict with nationally defined service priorities.Discrepancy between what management want of user involvement and what users want may be a major source of dissatisfaction for service users, since managers definitions tend to prevail. Some reviews note that dissatisfaction and even conflict may be an inevitable part of the user participation process (ibid). Thus, it requires as a proper resolution of areas of differences that they are ade quately taken cared of. Those who usually contact the users should be trained and coached on how to interact and listen to their views and opinions in order to ward off any form of conflict breeding.As Carr (2004), puts it, the research suggests that front- line practitioners who have most contact with service users could be usefully engaged in user participation strategies and receipts from user- led training focusing on the practice and principles of user participation. The front liner practitioners should be equipped with the knowledge of how to handle complaints when service users send it to them. CONCLUSION Users involvement in service in the nursing profession has given them the confidence and pride of having a say in the determination and outcome of what is provided to them.However, report has it that some users feel consulted rather than involved and others have a sense of powerlessness as regarding the complex and confused system in which the participation is structured o n. While a sense of stereotyping is being carried out in some quarters, where discrimination and marginalization based on race, minority ethnic has hampered the proper participation of some users. Some professionals relegates users interest, this is mostly done due to the huge lacuna of power positioning between the managers and professionals of service proviso and the users.It then requires that a proper mechanism for users involvement be put in place through their understanding of the roles of nursing in the healthcare facility and those ethics presidential term their profession. Hence, it is advocated that a proper feedback mechanism is available proper conflict resolution be provided for interest clash the users of service should be integrated into the service provision activities, where they are perceived as getting services as rights and not privileges.REFRENCESBarnes, C. Mercer G. (2003), Research review on User Involvement in Promoting Change and Enhancing the whole tone of Social care Services for Disabled People Center for Disability Studies University of Leeds. 30 June. http//www. leeds. ac. uk//archiveuk/Barnes/SCIEuserinvolvement2. pdf (19/01/06) Carr, Sarah (2004), Position Paper 3 Has service user participation made a difference to social care services? Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE). March. http//www.participateinhealth.org.au

Feminism in Film

Feminism in FilmFeminism In FilmFeminism called for positive female characters that seems to restrain contributed to its own decline as a political movement by refusing to recognise the body as a site of transformation and experimentation, overt of being imagined outside the notions of lack,passive, and other.A person can be masculine and feminine, active and passive, and more and more the body is transformed by dint of exercise, fashion, make-up, and hairstyles.Individuality is the defining receive of a contemporary consumer culture. The idea that a person can be anything he or she wants to be makes political movements like feminism increasingly unnecessary. real society sees people as consumers and films are made for people as consumers. In capitalist societies grand political ideologies have been replaced by individual consumerism. peerless could ask whether feminism is relevant any more as women occupy the same roles as men in society and in films. Female characters are pr esent in every genre, from road movies to westerns, from action to science fiction.Cinema is seen as pure entertainment in a world where individuals search for joyousness and satisfaction. The female action heroines represent similarity and difference, a middle space between binaries of masculine and feminine.They have contributed to the new spaces opened up for women in films and in societies. One could see these figures as a celebration of difference and individualism. You can be and become anything you want.It is no longer necessary to organise the world through rigid binaries. By denying women the possibility to enjoy images of active, aggressive, and even violent women without reducing them to pseudo males, feminism has lost sight of the agenda it set out to achieve.Furthermore, historically feminism like other critical movements has rarely addressed subjects that are not white and fundamentally heterosexual.Feminist film theory has inherited umteen of the cultural attributes and biases of its male predecessors. The centrality of sexual difference, especially in psychoanalytic feminism, and its difficulty in dealing with other differences- of class, race or sexual preference- have seemed to shit feminist theory within the very dualism it seeks to explain (Thornham, 1997).Feminism has more or less exhausted itself through its obsession with binary logic. Films are increasingly enjoyed as pure entertainment and the battle of the sexes has been replaced by celebration of difference and consumer culture.However, this does not mean that the problems addressed by feminists have been solved or that they have disappeared.

Relationship Between Savings and Inflation

Relationship Between Savings and InflationSavings help cushion the business cycle as the miserliness faces sound economic situations (Syden, 2014). To have a sustainable economic growth, there is a need for sustainable resources to support it. That is why salvages are need to finance capital spending. These high savings score levels have allowed the miserliness to gain high levels of investment (Horioka Terada-Hagiwara, 2011). Chinas domestic savings rate is one of the highest in the world (Loayza, Schmidt-Hebbel, Serven, 2000). Inadequate savings would leave the economy vulnerable to shocks in income uncertainty and unexpected rise in prices.At 52% of the national GDP, Chinas domestic savings rate is among the highest in emerging markets inadequate savings leave households vulnerable to shocks in income and uprise prices, resume inwardness to government in providing retirement assistance, constrain individuals in accumulating wealth inadequate savings leave households vu lnerable to shocks in income and rising prices, add burden to government in providing retirement assistance, constrain individuals in accumulating wealth.Many factors come into play with regard to how much to spend and how much to keep for future spending. round off LITERATUREThere have been a lot of theoretical and empricical research studies about the relationship of savings on different factors bid inflation rate, unemployment rate, and absorb rate.It has been argued that savings are important, and when the economy is hit hard, having money in the bank can ease the problem (Elmerraji, 2010). Saving rates around the world differs widely. (Loayza, Schmidt-Hebbel, Serven, 2000) state that China, worlds fastest growing economy, had one of the largest national saving rates in the world. Those at Sub-Saharan Africa save less than 15% of their vulgar national disposable income epoch East Asia saves more than 30%. In recent years, saving rates have doubled in East Asia while those in Latin America were stagnated.What people do not spend after consuming part of their income is called personal savings. People tend to put their savings on bank accounts or partly invested (Piana, 2003). Given a certain income, the decision of consuming a good negatively affects savings. Postponing such consumption would increase savings and in contrast, savings can rise due to negative expectations for future income.As economic shocks occur on business cycles, households experience hard time in unexpected reduction in income. According to the Life-cycle hypothesis by Milton Freidman, people would eventually save more and minimize consumption to repeal future uncertainty.(Zaman, Carannate, Ferra, 2013) In times of economic crisis like the recent financial crisis on 2008, policy measures and uncertainty affects household consumption and saving decisions. In the Spanish economy, after the great recession, there has been an evolution of saving rates (Bande Riveiro, 2012). The be havior of households has changed after the great recession, through increasing saving rates. Large increase in savings rates is connected to the increased uncertainty in the future (Bande Riveiro, 2012).EMPLOYMENTMacroeconomic instability which is measured by inflation, causes an upward trend in saving. The season of high inflation and high unemployment, as well as cutting public benefits have raised income uncertainty and changed the expected future income of the economy (Chowdhurry, 2014).When an economy has a crisis, it leads to unemployment, and the risk of future uncertainty in income makes households save more (Zaman, Carannate, Ferra, 2013). When part of the households are affected with future uncertainty of income, it stimulates to low pray and consumption which would worsen the economic situation of the country. Financial crisis happens when labor market is distorted with high unemployment, changing households structure of saving portfolio. Any sort of financial crisis l eading to a recession would have a significant final result on household savings.ECONOMIC GROWTHGrowth models includes Harrod (1939), Domar (1946) states that economic growth is passing dependent on level of savings and output ration. These models indicate that increase in saving means high investment which stimulates economic growth. The availability of finances for investment increases as take of having higher savings (Sothan, 2014). The higher the level of saving rate leads to increased capital stock that in progress leads to a high level of output.Business CycleDifferent economies go through different patterns of ups and downs in the value of its sodding(a) Domestic Product (Riley, 2012). This business cycle has four phases namely boom, recession, depression, and retrieval. stinting boom has high consumer spending, profits, and investment. Unemployment tends to be low in this economic situation. Economic Recession has low level of consumer spending, income, and investment, a nd has a rising unemployment as businesses cut costs. Economic depression is when there is a declining GDP, showing weak level of consumer spending and investment, rapid rise of unemployment and prices starting to fall. Economic recovery is when economic situation starts to get better and consumers begin to increase spending and investment.Every countrys goal is for an economy to achieve a sustainable level of growth (Riley, 2012). Trend growth rate is what helps assess and compare the growth of the different economies.(Lequiller Blades, 2007)REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREEFFECT OF INFLATION ON SAVINGS RATEAlmost all the past literatures that were prime concerning the relationship of the variables inflation rate and savings rate concluded that the relationship between the 2 are coercive and significant. In a cross-sectional data on inflation rates and savings rates of various countries in the world, both certain and developing, the results obtained in the recent study showed that inflation rates of all the countries positively impacts each of the countries savings rate (Cheng Li, 2014). El-Seoud (2014) conducted a study on the effect of Gross Domestic Product, amour rate, and inflation rate on the national saving rate in the kingdom of Bahrain over the past 20 years. The researcher found that inflation rate has a positive relationship and significant impact on Bahrains saving rate in both the long contribute and short run. Similarly, Syden (2014) also found that in their study of South Africas 48 years of household savings data, inflation significantly creates a positive impact on the continents saving rate. As for the case of Turkey, Er, Tugcu, Coban (2014) used the Autoregressive Distributed Lag approach and the studys results indicated that there that inflation positively affects inflation rate and savings but there was no relationship of significance between inflation and savings in the short run. Using cardinal stage least squares model, the study of Chaturvedi, Kumar Dholakia (2009) on the relationship between economic growth, inflation, and saving rate in Asia revealed that inflation rate has a positive effect on the interest rates of the Asian countries as well. On the other hand, Heer Suessmuth (2006) utilized data of the inflation and saving rates from United States postwar block in order to analyze the monetary policy regimes of the three eras, namely the Pre-Volcker Era (65-78), Volcker Era (79-87), and the Greenspan Era (88-98). There appeared to be ambiguous results on the effect of inflation on the saving rates. In the Pre-Volcker Era and Greenspan Era, inflation negatively affected the saving rates. In the Volcker Era, on the other hand, inflation is positively associated with saving rates (Heer Suessmuth, 2006).EFFECT OF INTEREST RATE ON SAVINGS RATEEl-Seoud (2014) concluded from his previously mentioned study that the interest rate in Bahrain, just like inflation, has a positive and significant effect on the national saving rate in the short run. However, in the long run, El-Seoud (2014) saw that while the interest rate still has a positive relationship on Bahrains saving rate, this effect is now insignificant. On the other hand, in the results acquired from the study of Syden (2014) on South Africa, it showed that interest rate has a negative relationship and significantly impacts the saving behavior of South Africa. In a study on the Turkish economy, the researchers found that there was no significant relationship between interest rates and saving rate found in the long run (Er, Tugcu Coban, 2014).(Challe Ragot)(Romer)ReferencesEl-Seoud, M. S. (2014). The strength of Interest Rate, Inflation Rate And GDP On National Savings Rate. Retrieved from http//www.gifre.org/admin/papers/gjcmp/1-7-EFFECT-vol-3-3-gjcmp.pdfSyden, M. (2014). Trends and Determinants of Household Saving in South Africa. Economic Affairs 59(2) 191-208Cheng, Q. Li, X. (2014). cross-country Effects of Inflation on National Savings. Retrieved from https//smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/52867/Cross-Country Effects of Inflation on National Savings(ECON3161).pdfChaturvedi, V., Kumar, B. Dholakia, R. H. (2009). Inter-Relationship between Economic Growth, Savings and Inflation in Asia. journal of International Economic Studies, No.23, 122. Retrieved from http//repo.lib.hosei.ac.jp/bitstream/10114/3628/1/23VaibhavChaturvedi-ather.pdfHeer, B. Suessmuth, B. (2006). The Savings-Inflation Puzzle. Retrieved from http//www.cesifo-group.de/pls/guestci/download/CESifo Working Papers 2006/CESifo Working Papers January 2006/cesifo1_wp1645.pdfEr, P. H., Tugcu, C. T. Coban O. (2014). Investigating The Link between Savings, Inflation and Economic Growth An ARDL Analysis for The Case of Turkey. Journal of Economics, Finance and Accounting. Vol. 1, Issue 2.Wachtel, P. (1977). Inflation, Uncertainty, and Saving Behavior since the Mid-1950s. Retrieved from http//www.nber.org/chapters/c9102.pdfBibliogra phyBande, R., Riveiro, D. (2012, October). Private Saving Rates and Macroeconomic Uncertainty Evidence from Spanish Regional Data. Iberian Regional Economics Network. Retrieved bump into 2015, from http//otega.usc.es/docs_idega/documentos_de_traballo/irene/irene_4.pdfChalle, E., Ragot, X. (n.d.). Precautionary Saving over the Business Cycle. Retrieved March 2015, from http//www.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.57517.1321520817/ChalleRagot.pdfChowdhurry, A. (2014, December). Terms of Trade shocks and Private Savings in the developing Countries. Journal of Comparative Economics. Retrieved March 2015, from http//dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2015.02.006Elmerraji, J. (2010, February 28). How Savings Are Saving the Economy. Retrieved February 2015, from http//www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0310/savings-are-a-blessing-in-a-slow-recovery.aspxHorioka, C. Y., Terada-Hagiwara, A. (2011, November). The Determinants and Long-Term Projections of Saving Ratesin Developing Asia. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http//www.nber.org/papers/w17581Lequiller, F., Blades, D. (2007). arrangement National Accounts. 415. doi10.1787/9789264027657-enLoayza, N., Schmidt-Hebbel, K., Serven, L. (2000). Saving in Developing Countries An Overview. The World Bank Economic Review, 14, 393-414.Piana, V. (2003). Savings. Economics Web Institute. Retrieved February 2015, from http//www.economicswebinstitute.org/glossary/savings.htmRiley, J. (2012, September). Economic Environment. Retrieved March http//www.tutor2u.net/business/dodge/economy-business-cycle.html, 2015Romer, C. (n.d.). Business Cycles. The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Retrieved March 2015, from http//www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/BusinessCycles.htmlSothan, S. (2014). Causal Relationship between Domestic Saving and Economic Growth Evidence from Cambodia. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 6. doi10.5539/ijef.v6n9p213Syden, M. (2014, June). Trends and Determinants of Household Saving in South Africa. Eco nomic Affairs. doi10.5958/J.0976-4666.59.2.018Zaman, R., Carannate, M., Ferra, E. (2013, June 17). Effects of Uncertainty on Household Saving Rate. Munich Personal RePEc Archive. Retrieved March 2015, from http//mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/51208/

The importance of geometry

The importance of geometryThis chapter includes the importance of geometry and the importance of breeding how to solve traditional battle cry difficultys by students in direct mathematics. The concerns of mathematics culture stakeholders about word of honor riddle solving found on home(a) and international assessments and the suggestions provided by exploreers and educators to improve students performance when solving word b differents atomic number 18 to a fault freshen uped. The theories and empirical studies that focus on comprehension, representation, and solution of word problems ar summarized.Although using mathematics, and in point geometry, to model situations from work places has been part of education for centuries, the review of the literature starts with the beginning of the late nineteenth century, with the exception of Ren Descartes (1596-1650) doctrine of problem solving (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1983). The review includes recommendations from importan t publications that inform mathematics education. Research-based theoretical and conceptual frameworks that natesup man the solution process of mathematics word problems are used to develop a research hypothesis for examination in this study. Problem resolving and Solving Word Problems Some mathematics educators and researchers believe that a problem lies as an obstruction between two ends, the problem and the solution, without any clearly defined shipway to traverse (Brownell, 1942 Mayer, 1985 Polya, 1980). This definition may also be applied to word problems because many researchers include math word problems in problem solving research (Kilpatrick, 1985). The logic behind this definition can be traced back to Ren Descartes (1596-1650) philosophy which suggests that method is necessary to uncover the truth of nature. The following excerpt from Encyclopedia Britannica (1983) on Descartes Discourse on Method is worth mentioning as part of his doctrine of problem solving1The Di scourse is a philosophical classic. It hides the fundamental assertion that the human consciousness is basically sound and the only means of attaining truth never to accept anything as true which I you did non clearly and distinctly see to be so. Descartes thus implies the rejection of all accepted ideas and opinions, the determination to doubt until convinced of the contrary by self-evident facts. The second rule is an instruction to analyze the problem to be solved. Once cleared of its prejudices, the mind, using the example set by mathematicians, must divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible that is, discover what is relevant to the problem and reduce it as far as possible to its simplest data. The third rule is to conduct my thoughts in order, beginning with objects that are the simplest and easiest to know and so proceed, gradually, to knowledge of the more complex. The 4th rule is a warning to recapitulate the chains of reasoning to be certain that there are no omissions. These simple rules are not to be considered a mere automatic formula they are to be regarded as a mental discipline, based on the example of mathematical practice. (p. 600) Schoenfeld (1987) summarized the four phases of Descartes problem solving plan. The idea in phase I is to reduce an algebra problem to a single variable equation for solving. Phase II suggests reducing a mathematics problem to an algebra problem and solving it according to phase I. In phase III, any problem situation is converted to a mathematics problem by mathematizing. In phase IV, the problem is then solved using the ideas in phase I and II. In two of his many rules (rules XIV and XV), Descartes suggested the drawing of diagrams as an aid to solving problems (pp. 29-36). It is noted from the above excerpt of Descartes problem solving process that a problem should be broken down to its parts before attempting to solve it. Each part should also be understood separately. For example, a word problem can usually be solved if one can understand the words (vocabulary), their meaning, their interconnection, the objects they represent, and the relevance of those objects in the problem. Solving a word problem is also sometimes touch onred to as problem solving. According to Branca (1987), problem solving is an alternative meaning of applying mathematics to different circumstances (p. 72). That means if a situation is explained in words, or in a word problem, then applying mathematics as a tool to solve that problem situation may be tough as problem solving. Also, Brown, Cronin, and McEntire (1994) stated that assessment on word problems has different names, including math reasoning, problem solving, word problems, as well as story problems (p. 32). Although word problems have been extensively used in problem solving research, the similarity and differences between word problems and problem solving should be clarified. A word problem is also a problem to solve, according to the definitions previously mentioned. Many educators think solving word problems require the problem solving skills. For this dissertation, word problems will refer to problems of the type that appear in standardized assessments and tests such as the NAEP, the New Jersey HSPA, the SAT, and the ACT. They are not problems bear upond to everyday human life without hard facts where students have to wander, collect facts for mathematizing the situation before solving them. The problems in this study can be attempted using general heuristics (Polya, 1945 Schoenfeld, 1985), as well as through the application of Descartes problem solving principle and other methods based on Descartes philosophy. According to Kilpatrick (1987), in recent years, some researchers in mathematics education have used problems with increasing level of difficulty and learning opportunity that require the novel combination of rules and reasoning. A few similar problems were used in this researc h. (See Appendix K for sample problems) However, these problems are infrequently found outside of tests or class assignments. Solving Word Problems A Goal of Mathematics grooming Learning to solve problems is the principal reason of studying mathematics ( democracyal Council of Supervisors of Mathematics, 1977, p. 2). The NCTM (Krulik Reys, 1980) also suggested that problem solving be regarded as the major goal of learning school mathematics from 1980 to 1989 and repeated that recommendation more recently (NCTM, 2000). Mathematics accomplishment of students, which includes problem solving, became a major concern in the U. S. with the release of A Nation at Risk (U. S. Department of Education, 1983). This publication recommended focusing on the teaching of geometric and algebraic concepts and real-life importance of mathematics in solving problems. The low word problem solving ability of U.S. students of 9, 13, and 17 years of age was verified by the graduation data from the NAEP conducted in 1973. While analyzing the results of that assessment, Carpenter, Coburn, Reys, and Wilson (1976) concluded It is most impress to ascertain the suggestion that many students receive very little opportunity to learn to solve world problems. The assessment results are so poor, however, that we wonder whether this is not the case. A commitment to working and thinking about word problems is needed for teachers and their students. (p. 392) Table 2.1 shows the scale tally of NAEP on mathematics obtained by U.S. students in grades 4, 8, and 12, on a 0 to 500 scale, from 1990 to 2007. Table 2.2 shows the percent of different types of word problems correctly answered by the students in grades 8 and 12. According to Braswell et al. (2001), the achievement levels of 249, 299, and 336 are considered adept levels for fourth-, eighth-, and 12th-grade students, respectively. Table 2.1 indicates very small improvements in the NAEP test scores for fourth-grade and eighth-grade student s over the span of 17 years (1990 to 2007). However, these scores are below the suggested proficiency levels. It may be noted from Tables 2.1 and 2.2 that improvement, either in overall performance or in word problem solving skills for all participating U.S. students, is trivial. Also the scores that hover around 230 for grade 4, 275 for grade 8, and 300 for grade 12 on a 0 to 500 scale are too low. Of particular concern is an average of only 4% correctly answered questions for the years 1990 to 2000 (Table 2.2) by U.S. grade 12 students on volume and surface area related problems. supranational assessments such as the FIMS in 1965, the SIMS in 1982, the PISA in 2003 and 2007, and the TIMSS in 1995 and 2003 further attested U.S. students poor problem solving skills and highlighted their low mathematical achievement in comparison to students from other participating countries. The FIMS and SIMS conducted mathematics assessment of 13year-old students and high school seniors (National Council of Educational Statistics, 1992). According to the NCTM (2004), the PISA measures the numerical skills and problem solving aptitude of 15-year-old students on a scale of 0 to 500whereas the TIMSS measures fourth and eighth grade students ability on concepts on a scale of 0 to 1000. The NCTM also reported that the NAEP, TIMSS, and PISA, which are low-stakes tests, leave group performance results of students. High-stakes tests, like New Jerseys HSPA or other state mandated tests, as well as the SAT and ACT, focus on the performance of soulfulness students. Of the three assessments, NAEP, TIMSS, and PISA, TIMSS and NAEP have the most in common in terms of mathematical concepts and cognitive necessity (NCTM). The findings from the mathematics results of the PISA of 2000 and 2003 reported by Lemke et al. (2004) indicated that U. S. performance in algebra and geometry was lower than two-third of the participating OECD countries. Even the top 10% of the participants in the U.S. were outperformed by more than half of their OECD counterparts in solving problems. The then U.S. Education Secretary emphasized the need to reform high schools on top priority basis (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). The latest PISA (2007) results indicated that the mathematical accomplishment of U.S students is lower than the international average. According to TIMSS (2003), U.S. students of fourth and eighth grades scored on average 518 and 504, respectively in mathematics. These scores were higher than the average score of 495 of the fourth-grade students in the 25 participating countries and the average score of 466 of the eighth-grade students in the 45 participating countries. However, these scores were lower than the 4 Asian countries and 7 European countries for fourth grade and lower than the 5 Asian countries and 4 European countries for eighth grade. Although the average score of U.S. eighth-grade students improved by only 12 points from 492 in 1995 to 504 in 2003, th ere was no change reported by TIMSS in their score from 1999 to 2003. Overall, these scores on a scale from 0 to 1000 indicate that students in grades four and eight in the U.S. only achieved about 50% mastery of the concepts tested. National (NAEP, 2007) and international (FIMS, 1965 SIMS, 1982 TIMSS, 1995, 1999, 2003) assessments indicate that student achievement in mathematics remains a major educational concern. Those assessments use multiple choice, short-response, and unrestricted word problems which are similar to those on the New Jersey HSPA, SAT, and ACT. Since students mathematical skills are measured using one or more of the above assessments, learning to solve word problems must be considered a major goal of mathematics education and a major component of assessing student achievement in mathematics. Further, learning to solve word problems related to real-life situations using mathematical concepts also helps students to be successful at work and in their lives. Geometr y as a al-Qaida of Mathematics-History of Problem Solving and Geometry In ancient India, the rudiments of Geometry, called Rekha-Ganita, were formulated and applied to solve architectural problems for building temple motifs (Srivathsa, Narasimhan, Sasat 2003, p. 218). The 4000 years old mathematics that emerged in India during The Indus Civilization (2500 BC-1700 BC) proposed for the first time, the ideas of zero, algebra, and finding square and cube roots in Indian Vedic literature (Birodhkar, 1997 OConnor Robertson, 2000 Singh, 2004). The significance of studying geometry is evident from the late(prenominal) mathematical records. The book, A History of Mathematics (Suzuki, 2002) provides the mathematical innovations made by the most brilliant mathematicians from ancient times until the 20th century. Some of the mathematical developments presented in this book that are related to problem solving and geometry are discussed next. According to Suzuki (2002), the ancient Egyptians (3000 B.C.) demonstrated their skills in solving word problems by an Egyptian scratch awl on the mathematical papyri using the concepts of linear and nonlinear equations without any mathematical notations. That is, every problem solved by an Egyptian scribe was a word problem (p. 13). In order to redraw property lines after the yearly flooding of the Nile, the Egyptians developed realistic geometry related geometric figures, but not their abstract properties. Also, their geometry is modify with problems relating to pyramids (p. 16). The Babylonians (1700 B.C.) also routinely solved more complicated and complex problems entirely verbally (Suzuki, 2002, p. 28) without any system of mathematical notations. Their ways of solving interest relate problems show their advanced mathematical skills. According to Suzuki, the Babylonians also developed methods for calculating the area of triangles, trapezoids and other polygons. Before Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.), the Pythagorean Theorem was w ell known to the Babylonians (p. 31). The development of pre-Euclidean geometry goes back to the age of Plato (427-347 B.C.). It is said that the entrance plaque to Platos school in Athens read, Let No One Unversed In Geometry Come Under My roof (Suzuki, 2002, p. 74). According to Suzuki, Plato had probably discovered the word mathematics from the mathema, meaning the three liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy (p. 74). Later, Euclid (300 B.C.), who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, wrote the Elements, a conglomeration of 300 years of Greek geometrical development. The Elements was so important for the next two thousand years of mathematics that Euclidean geometry became an essential part of learning mathematics until it faced the first serious mathematical challenges (p. 86) in the 19th century. The significance of understanding geometry for high school students has been a part of recommendations of the committees on mathematics education in the U.S. since 1894 (Commission on Mathematics, 1959 National Education Association, 1894, National perpetration on Mathematical Requirements, 1923 Progressive Education Association (PEA) Committee and the Joint Commission, 1940 The National Committee of Fifteen, 1912). An account of these committees reports may be found in the 1970 yearbook of the NCTM, A History of Mathematics Education in the United States and Canada. A brief of the recommendations of these committees are presented below. The first national group of experts that addressed mathematics education was the subcommittee on mathematics of the Committee of Ten (National Education Association, 1894). They considered the goals and curriculum for mathematics education and recommended preparatory work on algebra and geometry in the upper elementary school curriculum. On demonstrative geometry, the committee stressed on the importance of elegance and finish in geometrical deduction (p. 25). About demonstrative geometry, the committee further stated, there is no student whom it will not brighten and strengthen intellectually as few other exercises can (p. 116). This suggests all mathematics teachers engage their students in using the geometric concepts to visualize their surroundings and to geometrically demonstrate what they visualize. The final report of The National Committee of Fifteen on the Geometry Syllabus (National Education Association, 1912) recommended using realistic approaches to exercises in mathematics instruction. Eleven years later, its final report, The Reorganization of Mathematics in utility(prenominal) Education (The National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, 1923) also stressed the importance of the studying geometry. The commission advocated that the course of study in mathematics during the seventh, eighth, and ninth years contain the fundamental notions of arithmetic, of algebra, of intuitive geometry, of numerical trigonometry, and at least an introduction to demonstrative geometry (p. 1). One of th e practical aims of this ecommendation was to encourage familiarity with geometric forms common in nature and life, as well as the elementary properties and relations of these forms, including their measurement, the development of space-perception, and the exercise of spatial imagination.

andersonville :: essays research papers

Prisoners began arriving at the prison in late February of 1864 and by early June the prisonpopulation had climbed to 20,000. Consequently, it was decided that a larger prison wasnecessary, and by mid-June action was begun to enlarge the prison. The prisons environs were ext terminate 610 feet to the north, encompassing an area of roughly 10 acres, bringing the total prisonarea to 26.5 acres. The extension was built by a bunch of Union prisoners consisting of 100 whitesand 30 African Americans in about 14 days. On July 1, the northern extension was opened to theprisoners who subsequently tore down the trustworthy north stockade wall, then used the timbers forfuel and building materials. By August, over 33,000 Union prisoners were held in the 26.5 acreprison. Due to the threat of Union raids (Shermans troops were walk on Atlanta), General Winder ordered the building of defensive earthworks and a middle and outer stockade around the prison.Construction of the earthworks began Jul y 20th. These earthworks consisted of Star Fort rigidsouthwest of the prison, a redoubt located northwest of the north gate, and six redans. The middle and outer stockades were hastily constructed of unhewn pine logs set vertically in walltrenches that were about four feet deep. The middle stockade posts projected roughly 12 feetabove the cornerstone surface and encircled the inner prison stockade as well as the corner redans. Theouter stockade, which was never completed, was meant to encompass the entire complex ofearthworks and stockades. The posts of the outer stockade extended about five feet above theground surface. By early September, Shermans troops had occupied Atlanta and the threat of Union raids onAndersonville prompted the transfer of most of the Union prisoners to other camps in Georgia and southbound Carolina. By mid-November, all but about 1500 prisoners had been shipped out ofAndersonville, and only a few guards remained to police them. Transfers to Andersonville i n lateDecember increased the numbers of prisoners at a time again, but even then the prison population totaled only about 5000 persons. The number of prisoners at the prison would remain this low until the war ended in April of 1865. During the 15 months during which Andersonville was operated,almost 13,000 Union prisoners died there of malnutrition, exposure, and disease Andersonville became synonymous with the attrocities which both North and South soldiers experienced as

Investigating the rates of reaction of Sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

Investigating the rates of reaction of Sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric paneUsing my preliminary exam experiments I decided on using the followingapparatus- A conical Flask- A piece of White Paper marked with a black cross- Dilute hydrochloric corrosive- Sodium thiosulphate- Water- Measuring cylinderWe must produce a piece of coursework investigating the rates ofreaction, and the impression different changes have on them. The rate ofreaction is the rate of loss of a reactant or the rate of formation ofa product during a chemic reaction. It is measured by dividing 1 bythe m taken for the reaction to take place. There are four factorswhich affect the rate of a reaction, concord to the collision theoryof reacting particles temperature, assiduousness (of solution),surface are (of solid reactants), and catalysts. I have chosen toinvestigate the effect concentration has on a reaction.This is because concentration is the most serviceable to investigate asit would take longer to prepare a solid in powdered and unpowderedform, and it is difficult to get accurate readings out-of-pocket to theinevitabilities of human errors, and as gas is mostly colourless it isdifficult to gauge a reaction changing the pressure, and if asubstance is added to give the gas colour, it may influence theoutcome of the experiment.Also temperature is difficult to sustain and be made exact for all theexperiments.Similarly the use of a catalyst complicates things, and if used wrongly could alter the outcome of the experiment.All other factors however must be kept constant while we are varyingthe concentration.Both the sodium thiosulphate and the Hydrochloric acid are soluble inwater, so the concentration of either can be changed. However I havechosen to vary the sodium thiosulphate as it is available in largeramounts, and various concentrations are prepared.I will time how long it will take varying concentrations of SodiumThiosulphate to react with the Hydrochloric acid so that the solutionwhen placed above the white paper with the black cross is so reactedthat one cannot see the cross through the opaque liquid.In order for my findings to be valid the experiment must be a fairone. I will use the same standard each time for judging when the X hasdisappeared. I will make sure that the measuring cylinders for the HCland thiosulphate will not be mixed up. The amount of HCl will be 5 cm3each time, and the amount of thiosulphate will be fixed at 20 cm3.Also room temperature will be used as the temperature as it ispractical and will not need to be monitored.